Sound Verdict

Health

Music as an intervention: what the trials show

Music has more randomised trial evidence behind it than most things sold as wellness. The effects are real and specific.

Updated 2 min read 28 citations Evidence strength 4/5

Timecode control record sitting on a turntable platter with the tonearm lowered
Timecode vinyl lets a laptop follow the movement of a real record. Audiotecna · CC BY 2.0 · Wikimedia Commons

Sleep

A Cochrane review of music for insomnia in adults [5] is the strongest single piece of evidence here. Cochrane reviews are conservative by construction, so the existence of one addressing music at all reflects a real body of trials.

Music is not a treatment for chronic insomnia — that is CBT-I, covered on our sleep evidence site. It is a low-cost adjunct with a plausible mechanism through arousal reduction.

Music for insomnia

Exercise

The exercise literature is where effects are most consistent. Meta-analytic review of music in exercise and sport finds effects across performance and psychological outcomes, and specific trials have examined anaerobic performance and fast-tempo music. Music timing has been shown to differentiate fatigue perception, and personalised interactive music systems for physical activity have been meta-analysed.

The main mechanism is dissociation — attention redirected away from interoceptive discomfort — which lowers perceived exertion at a given workload. That is a genuine ergogenic effect achieved without changing physiology.

Where the evidence is strongest
ApplicationEvidenceEffect
Submaximal endurance exerciseGoodLower perceived exertion, longer time to exhaustion
High-intensity exerciseModerateSmaller effect; interoceptive signals dominate
Sleep onsetCochrane review [5]Modest improvement in sleep quality
Anxiety in clinical settingsMeta-analysed [4]Consistent modest reduction
Occupational burnoutSystematic review [3]Preliminary
Neurological rehabilitationSystematic review [2]Specific and promising

Clinical applications

Music interventions for psychological and physical outcomes have been meta-analysed broadly [4]. More specific applications include managing burnout in nurses [3] and rehabilitation for unilateral spatial neglect [2] — the latter being genuinely mechanistic rather than merely relaxing, using auditory attention to influence spatial attention. Musical neurofeedback is a developing area with its own review [1].

Choosing music for a purpose

  • For exercise: tempo matched to intended cadence, and music you actually like. Preference moderates the effect substantially.
  • For sleep: slow, predictable, low dynamic range. Anything that surprises you defeats the purpose.
  • For focus: familiar and without lyrics. Novelty and language both compete for the resources you are trying to allocate elsewhere.
  • For mood: matched then shifted. Starting where you are and moving works better than an abrupt contrast.

Common questions

Does music actually improve exercise performance?
Yes, principally by lowering perceived exertion at submaximal intensities. The effect is smaller at maximal effort.
What is the best tempo for running?
Roughly matching your intended cadence helps entrainment. Preference matters as much as tempo.
Can music help me sleep?
A Cochrane review addresses this [5], with modest effects. It is an adjunct, not a treatment for chronic insomnia.
Is there anything to binaural beats?
Far weaker evidence than ordinary music, and much stronger marketing.
Direct-drive turntable with platter, tonearm and an aftermarket record brush fitted
Miroslav Vajdic · CC BY-SA 2.0 · Wikimedia Commons
The evidence behind this page A stacked bar showing the composition of the 28 publications cited on this page by study type. 917meta-analysis (9)randomised trial (17)review (1)other (1)
28 publications, 2006–2026. That is a mix with both trials and syntheses in it, which is the position from which a claim about cause is reasonable. Source: this page’s own citation list, below.

References

Every citation below links to the original peer-reviewed record on PubMed or via DOI. Nothing here is a substitute for medical advice.

  1. Personalized Interactive Music Systems for Physical Activity and Exercise: Exploratory Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis Danso A, Kekäläinen T, Koehler F, et al. · JMIR human factors · 2025 · Meta-analysis DOIPubMed 40921008Full text
  2. Musical Neurofeedback Advancements, Feedback Modalities, and Applications: A Systematic Review Bhavsar P, Shah P, Sinha S, et al. · Applied psychophysiology and biofeedback · 2024 · Systematic review DOIPubMed 38837017
  3. Music-based interventions for unilateral spatial neglect: A systematic review Long J, Zhang Y, Liu X, et al. · Neuropsychological rehabilitation · 2023 · Systematic review DOIPubMed 35980394
  4. Association of Music Interventions With Health-Related Quality of Life: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis McCrary JM, Altenmüller E, Kretschmer C, et al. · JAMA network open · 2022 · Meta-analysis DOIPubMed 35315920Full text
  5. The Use of Music to Manage Burnout in Nurses: A Systematic Review Finnerty R, Zhang K, Tabuchi RA, et al. · American journal of health promotion : AJHP · 2022 · Systematic review DOIPubMed 35633074Full text
  6. Effects of music in exercise and sport: A meta-analytic review Terry PC, Karageorghis CI, Curran ML, et al. · Psychological bulletin · 2020 · Meta-analysis DOIPubMed 31804098
  7. Effect of Listening to Music on Wingate Anaerobic Test Performance. A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis Castañeda-Babarro A, Marqués-Jiménez D, Calleja-González J, et al. · International journal of environmental research and public health · 2020 · Meta-analysis DOIPubMed 32599941Full text
  8. Music interventions for improving psychological and physical outcomes in cancer patients Bradt J, Dileo C, Magill L, et al. · The Cochrane database of systematic reviews · 2016 · Meta-analysis DOIPubMed 27524661
  9. Music for insomnia in adults Jespersen KV, Koenig J, Jennum P, et al. · The Cochrane database of systematic reviews · 2015 · Meta-analysis DOIPubMed 26270746Full text
  10. Active music therapy reduces depressive symptoms and enhances sleep and daily-life autonomy in older adults Migliore S, Spinoso R, De Federicis LS, et al. · Clinical gerontologist · 2026 · Randomised controlled trial DOIPubMed 41423713
  11. Recovery effects of slow-tempo preferred music on brain activity, physiological and psychological responses following high-intensity interval exercise in healthy male adults Sreepetch S, Ramyarangsi P, Mukda S, et al. · Acta psychologica · 2025 · Randomised controlled trial DOIPubMed 40845778
  12. Effects of personalized music listening on post-stroke cognitive impairment: A randomized controlled trial Fan LP, Quijano-Ruiz A, Wang C, et al. · Complementary therapies in clinical practice · 2024 · Randomised controlled trial DOIPubMed 39098085
  13. A Personalized Music Intervention in Nursing Home Residents Living With Dementia: Findings From a Randomized Study Inoue M, Ihara ES, Layman S, et al. · Journal of applied gerontology : the official journal of the Southern Gerontological Society · 2024 · Randomised controlled trial DOIPubMed 38867708
  14. Music Timing Differentiates Fatigue Perception and Performance during Isometric Strength Exercises: A Crossover Randomised Trial Poon ET, Kwan WL, Chow CC, et al. · Journal of sports science & medicine · 2024 · Randomised controlled trial DOIPubMed 38455446Full text
  15. Feasibility of therapeutic music listening in fibromyalgia: a randomised controlled pilot study Raglio A, Bettaglio R, Manera MR, et al. · Neurological sciences : official journal of the Italian Neurological Society and of the Italian Society of Clinical Neurophysiology · 2023 · Randomised controlled trial DOIPubMed 36334181
  16. Listening to Fast-Tempo Music Improves Physical Performance in Recreational Swimmers Aburto-Corona JA, Romero-Torres JA, Montero-Herrera B, et al. · Research quarterly for exercise and sport · 2023 · Randomised controlled trial DOIPubMed 35426762
  17. The effects of tempo and loudness variations during warm-up with music on perceived exertion, physical enjoyment and specific performances in male and female taekwondo athletes Ouergui I, Jebabli A, Messaoudi H, et al. · PloS one · 2023 · Randomised controlled trial DOIPubMed 37104494Full text
  18. Self-Selected Motivational Music on the Performance and Perceived Exertion of Runners Clark JC, Baghurst T, Redus BS · Journal of strength and conditioning research · 2021 · Randomised controlled trial DOIPubMed 30550400
  19. Vocal music enhances memory and language recovery after stroke: pooled results from two RCTs Sihvonen AJ, Leo V, Ripollés P, et al. · Annals of clinical and translational neurology · 2020 · Randomised controlled trial DOIPubMed 33022148Full text
  20. Daily music listening to reduce work-related stress: a randomized controlled pilot trial Raglio A, Bellandi D, Gianotti M, et al. · Journal of public health (Oxford, England) · 2020 · Randomised controlled trial DOIPubMed 30942385
  21. The effect of music on anaerobic exercise performance and muscular endurance Cutrufello PT, Benson BA, Landram MJ · The Journal of sports medicine and physical fitness · 2020 · Randomised controlled trial DOIPubMed 31818058
  22. Randomized Trial of a Group Music and Imagery Method (GrpMI) for Women with Fibromyalgia Torres E, Pedersen IN, Pérez-Fernández JI · Journal of music therapy · 2018 · Randomised controlled trial DOIPubMed 29788133
  23. Pre-task music improves swimming performance Smirmaul BP, Dos Santos RV, Da Silva Neto LV · The Journal of sports medicine and physical fitness · 2015 · Randomised controlled trial PubMed 25303170
  24. Cognitive, emotional, and social benefits of regular musical activities in early dementia: randomized controlled study Särkämö T, Tervaniemi M, Laitinen S, et al. · The Gerontologist · 2014 · Randomised controlled trial DOIPubMed 24009169
  25. Music listening enhances cognitive recovery and mood after middle cerebral artery stroke Särkämö T, Tervaniemi M, Laitinen S, et al. · Brain : a journal of neurology · 2008 · Randomised controlled trial DOIPubMed 18287122
  26. Effects of Preferred vs. Nonpreferred Music on Resistance Exercise Performance Ballmann CG, McCullum MJ, Rogers RR, et al. · Journal of strength and conditioning research · 2021 · Clinical trial DOIPubMed 30531416
  27. Effect of pre-task music on sports or exercise performance Smirmaul BP · The Journal of sports medicine and physical fitness · 2017 · Review DOIPubMed 27244132
  28. The effects of music tempo and loudness level on treadmill exercise Edworthy J, Waring H · Ergonomics · 2006 · Journal article DOIPubMed 17090506